Rosa Parks

  

A woman named Rosa Louise McCauley Parks was born on February 4, 1913 and passed out on October 24, 2005 at age 92. She was an African American Civil Rights activist. Later Congress called Rosa Parks the "Mother of the Modern-Day Civil Rights Movement." On December 1 1955 when Rosa Parks was 42, she refused to obey the bus driver. James Blake (who was the bus driver) ordered her to give up her seat to make room for a white passanger. She said no, I will not give up my seat. For the action she did, it was an important symbol of the modern civil rights movement and Rosa Parks became an international icon of resistance to racial segregation. Later on Rosa Parks at organized with civil rights leaders, including boycott leader Martin Luther King Jr., helping to launch him to national prominance in the civil rights movement.

    After the arrest of Rosa Parks, black people of Montgomery and sympathizers of other races organized and promoted a boycott of the city bus line that lasted 381 days. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. was appointed the spokesperson for the Bus Boycott and taught nonviolence to all participants. Contingent with the protest in Montgomery, others took shape throughout the south and the country. They took form as sit-ins, eat-ins, swim-ins, and similar causes. Thousands of courageous people joined the "protest" to demand equal rights for all people.

1960s: Era of Assasination

The era of 1960 will forever be known as deep, mournful period for all Americans as great leaders were never given a chance to change the country. The death of John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963 shocked Americans all over the states. When the news spread around, schools across the country dismissed students early and 54% of all Americans stopped their daily activities to mourn for the death of Kennedy. Just 20 days before, Ngo Dinh Diem, President of Vietnam, along with his brother and chief political adviser, Ngo Dinh Nhu were assassinated by the north, communist Vietnam in order to bring havoc to south vietnamese order. While not a direct loss the americans would suffer from, this would spark the beginning of a deadly war americans would later participate in.

On February 21, 1965, human rights activist Malcolm X was assassinated by members of the Nation of Islam in New York City. His detractors accused Malcolm of being a black supremacist, who often spurred up racial violence. He has been described as one of the greatest and most influential African Americans in history.

Another considered antagonist,George Lincoln Rockwell, was assassinated on August 25,1967. As a leader of the American Nazi Party, Americans would be rather glad that such a twisted leader disappeared.

Americans would again suffer a tragic loss when the assassination of Civil Rights Leader, Martin Luther King Jr. On 1963, King delivered his "I Have a Dream" speech in Washington. As a prominent leader, King raised public conciousness of civil rights. He would later win the Nobel Peace Prize a year later for his work to end racial segregation and discrimination. By the end of his lifetime, King focused his work on ending poverty and the Vietnam War. Unfortunately, King would never see this through as a bullet took his life on April 4, 1968.

The last major assasination of the 1960's was the assassination of Robert F. Kennedy. While campaigning for presidential office in march 1968, he was shot by Sirhan Sirhan at the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles. Sirhan claimed not to bear any ill-will towards Kennedy, but evidence showed that kept a journal to carefully plan the assassination of Kennedy.

The era of 1960 will forever be remembered as a tragic period for Americans as great, prominent leaders were never given a chance to lead the country. Even though most assassinators were capture, our fallen leaders will never receive their justice, except for George Lincoln Rockwell.

The Kennedy Administration

A Roman Catholic of Irish descent, John F. Kennedy (JFK) was born on May 29, 1917. He joined the Navy in 1943, after graduating from Harvard, and he came back from World War II to pursue a career in politics. He was first Democratic Congressman and later a Senator of Massachusetts before he ran for President in the election of 1960. His victory over Republican candidate is largely credited to his superior performance in televised presidential debates. Kennedy appealed to Americans because he presented a young, fresh face to national politics.

In office, JFK his wife, Jacqueline, and his children ushered the White House into a new era, termed the “Camelot Years” for its vibrancy. The first family invited prominent writers, artists, and scientists to the White House, and JFK filled his cabinet with “the best and the brightest”. He even filled the Attorney General position with his brother, Robert Kennedy, whose relationship to the president added to his power.

JFK’s military policy revolved around the theory of “flexible response,” which involved preparing for a non-nuclear war as opposed to practicing brinkmanship. Unfortunately, Kennedy inherited poor relations between the US and communist Cuba, which had become increasingly strained during the Eisenhower administration. Kennedy authorized an invasion of Cuba which had been planned by Eisenhower and involved Cuban exiles to land in the Bay of Pigs and to spur a counterrevolutionary movement in Cuba in the hopes of overthrowing Castro. This operation, however, went horribly wrong, and it gave JFK and the entire country a bad public image. Later, when the administration learned that USSR’s Khrushchev was sending nuclear missiles to Cuba, Kennedy prepared for a quarantine and possible invasion of Cuba. With the world on the brink of nuclear war, Khrushchev and Kennedy worked out an agreement: Kennedy would not invade Cuba if Khrushchev would not send Cuba missiles.

As a policymaker, JFK was a supporter of civil rights. Among his domestic accomplishments were the creation of the Peace Corp, the foundation of the Alliance for Progress, increased funding for defense, an increase in the minimum wage, and a boost in the economy through deficit spending. However, some of his domestic reform ideas, which included civil rights legislation, space exploration, and scientific programs, encountered some resistance in Congress. Nonetheless, his goal of putting a man on the moon was eventually achieved, though he would never live to see it happen. On November 22, 1963, Kennedy was shot and killed in Dallas, Texas. The assassin, later found to be Lee Harvey Oswald, shot the president while he was driving in his presidential convertible car, and led the country into a new age under the leadership of Kennedy’s successor, Lyndon B. Johnson.

The Space Program: Apollo 11

In a speech to Congress in May of 1961, Kennedy expressed his ambitious goal for the nation: "I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth." Though the beloved president did not live to see the day, Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr, successfully landed on the Earth's moon on July 20th, 1969.

Aldrin on the moon's surface

Millions watched on television, and thousands gathered to witness the fateful day in United States' history. On July 16th, 1969, Apollo 11 was launched into space, and on July 19th, 1969, went into full orbit around the moon. After 30 revolutions, the three astronauts landed on the surface of the moon. Neil Armstrong was the first to walk on the surface, placing his left foot out first. The first footage, though of low quality, was received in Australia and then broadcasted to over 6oo million people. Upon setting foot on the moon, Armstrong famously said, "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind." The astronauts managed to fill up two boxes worth of lunar surface substance to bring back to Earth.

This mission to space was not merely for the recreational purposes of the United States government. In fact, this mission all a part of the grand Space Race between America and the Soviet Union. Three days before the launching of Apollo 11, the Soviet Union launched Luna 15, which crashed onto the surface of the moon a day before Apollo 11's scheduled launch.

Kennedy never did live to see the day his words were fulfilled just at the turn of the decade, but the nation and the rest of the world witnessed the day where boundaries were broken.

They Made the change.

The assassinations of the 1960s kicked off with one of the greatest president of the United States John F Kennedy. John F Kennedy coming into the presidency very young he had a dream to left the united states up from its term oil. "A nation which has forgotten the quality of courage which in the past has been brought to public life is not as likely to insist upon or regard that quality in its chosen leaders today - and in fact we have forgotten". On November 22, 1963 JFK was gunned down in Dallas, Texas. The nation was in shock the man that was going to change this nation around was gone.

JFK May 29Th 1917- November 22,1963

This next man that was taken away from this country was very important to the African American race, He was the most influential person of the 1960s. He was the reason why colored people took a stand, leader of the civil rights movement. "A man who won't die for something is not fit to live" Martin Luther King Jr. When he took the role of the leader of the civil rights he knew that his life was in danger. Martin knew that he could not use violence or riots to prove that Black People should be treated equal. He followed the teachings of Gandhi Peace and non violence. When Martin was shot kids were asking there teachers, Why did they kill a king?. Martin was not going to stop to he got what was right he made a statement that "we shall over come one day " He had the dream.
Martin Luther King Jr. Jan 16,1929 - April 4,1968

The Space Program

Not only did John F. Kennedy wish to accelerate the space program initiated by the Eisenhower administration, but he also wanted to restore America’s confidence in itself after the accomplishments of the Soviets in space.
To this purpose, seven men were selected to become Project Mercury astronauts: Scott Carpenter, Leroy Gordon Cooper, John Glenn Jr., Virgil “Gus” Grissom, Walter Schirra Jr., Alan Shepard Jr., and Donald “Deke” Slayton. There were three main goals to Project Mercury: to orbit a manned spacecraft around Earth, to investigate man’s ability to function in space, and to recover astronaut and spacecraft safely.
As mentioned before, the Soviet’s feats in space had shaken Americans. Understanding the need to restore confidence in Americans, Kennedy took the matter to Congress. On May 21, 1961, he took a strong stand in support of space exploration and asked for an additional $7 - $9 billion over the next five years for the space program. He did not justify this enormous funding on the basis of science and exploration but clearly showed the space race was a race between two competing ideologies: democracy and communism.
Within a year, Alan Shepard and Gus Grissom became the first two Americans to travel into space, soon followed by John Glenn Jr. becoming the first American to orbit Earth.
The sudden barrage of success quickly inspired medical researchers, engineers, test pilots, machinists, factory workers, businessmen, and industrialists to work together to achieve yet another goal: to reach the moon
As space exploration continued through the 1960s, the United States was well on its way to the moon. Eventually, with the creation of the Apollo Program (its purpose specifically to land on the moon) and further research President Kennedy’s dream was soon accomplished. On July 20, 1969, the Apollo 11 astronauts successfully landed on the moon and returned safely to Earth.
As a result of the space program, universities expanded their science programs. The huge amount of federal funding during the drive for space exploration gave rise to new industries and technologies. Many of these could be used in business, industry, and new consumer goods. Also, new industries involving space and defense soon sprang up.

by Andy and Jonathan

Vietnam War

Vietnam war was a war that had nothing to do with U.S. in the beginning.  What started everything was French’s attempt in getting back their control over Vietnam.  U.S. supported France with money, as a way to fight communism.  However, that situation did not last long.  In 1954, French surrendered. It was not the end of the war, but the beginning. 

Vietnam divided in half: South are anti-communists, and north are Communists. The northern communist group was known as Vietcong, led by Ho Chi Minh. With support from China and Soviet, the Vietcong was strong.  Johnson was not ready to let the entire Vietnam convert to communism, so he sent more support to South Vietnam as the war went on.  He pushed through the Tonkin Gulf Resolution in 1964, with granted him great military power in Vietnam.

The war was long and frustrating.  Vietcong never backed down no matter how much military forces U.S. put in. With their understanding of the Vietnam Geography, the Vietcong used hit and run strategies.  They dug tunnels, and launch surprise attacks.  The U.S. grew frustrated over their elusive enemy and used cruel strategies too.  The napalm and Agent Orange was used, which wounded many civilians.  Since they could not tell who is involved with Vietcong and who is not,. They simply conducted search-and-destroy missions, in which they kill everyone who is suspected. 

The War was not only horrible at the frontline, but at home too.  With television broadcasts, citizens of U.S. grew unrest.  The nation became divided into two groups, the Doves and Hawks.  The Doves wanted peace and end to the war, while the Hawks think U.S. should put in more powers.  The Students rebelled, and the SDS is formed.  

The longer the war went on, the less hope people have.  More and more people became Doves, and want an end to it all.  It’s not until Nixon became president that the war ended.  U.S. pulled out of Vietnam in March 29, 1973, after much bombing.  However, the war forever left a wound in American’s heart.  The Soldiers who came back suffered from post-traumatic stress disorder, and many committed suicides.  

South Vietnam surrendered to North Vietnam in 1975.  The war was a blood bath for both the Vietnamese and Americans.

-Katherine 

Civil Rights Movement

Despite slavery being abolished in the 1860s, African Americans still faced segregation and racial injustices by white people. However, African Americans stood tall and in 1955, began the African American Civil Rights Movement. It all began with one courageous woman, Rosa Parks, defying social codes of conduct by refusing to give up her bus seat. Her arrest for refusing to do so sparked a citywide bus boycott, which lasted for 385 days. Blacks in Montgomery, Alabama carpooled and walked, not taking the buses to make a statement about the unfair segregation on them. This boycott also allowed Martin Luther King Jr. to rise up and take control of the movement. The de facto leader of the civil rights movement, MLK Jr. was a fearless leader, a Baptist minister who excelled in the art of rhetoric. Born and raised in Atlanta, Georgia, in the Deep South, and from an early age was exposed to much racism and injustice. He would go on to lead many other protests, including the March on Birmingham.

MLK wanted to have a peaceful protest and decided to lead a march through the very racially segregated city of Birmingham. Accompanied by thousands, both blacks and whites marched alongside King. MLK was arrested, and police brutality was rampant as the Birmingham March continued. Major national television coverage led to the whole United States seeing police’s beatings and the horror of the situation. This gave African American freedom fighters leverage in Congress, and eventually led to the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964, ended and prohibited discrimination because of race, religion, national origin, and gender. It gave all citizens equal rights, regardless of color. This Act also showed that the Civil Rights Movement was not just for African Americans and that it was for all who had been discriminated against. This was shortly followed by the 24th amendment, which banned poll tax, and allowed all blacks to vote as well as poorer citizens. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 was what finally toppled any barriers keeping blacks from voting, eliminating literacy tests which had disqualified many African Americans to vote. Now all blacks had to do was overcome the fear and threats of violence from their white counterparts.

By: Yotam and Jonas

Eisenhower's Presidency

Dwight D Eisenhower won the 1952 presidential elections. He was the Republican candidate, so he believed in letting the economy run itself. Although the Republican party had control of both the House of Representatives and the Senate, he did not lower taxes because of the state's debt. He managed to prevent the national debt from rising and avoided inflation.

For the most part, Eisenhower's presidency was dominated by the Cold War. He formed to Pact of Madrid to make an alliance with Spain. He believed in the policy of containment, which was to keep communism from spreading to new areas. To do this, he started using the CIA to carry out covert actions, such as overthrowing leaders of other countries who could potentially be threats to the United States. Eisenhower was also a big supporter of increasing the United States' nuclear power.

During the election, Eisenhower had promised to end the Korean War if he became president. In 1953 a cease fire was established in Korea after Eisenhower threatened to use nuclear force on them. However, Eisenhower was also the first president to send troops into Vietnam. He opposed Britain, France, and Israel's involvement in the dispute in Egypt over the Suez Canal. He convinced them to pull out, but he later said that he regretted it.

~By Erin M

Tuskegee Airmen

Tuskegee Airmen

The Tuskegee Airmen were a group of African American pilots who fought in World War II. They comprised the first African American military aviators in the United States armed forces. Despite their great success in combat, they faced discrimination and segregation both within and outside the military.

The unit originated in 1941 as the 99^th Pursuit Squadron, with over 250 enlisted men. They were trained at Tuskegee Army Air Field in Illinois. They faced pervasive discrimination during their training, but despite this setback, they were successfully formed into an entire service arm, including a ground crew. Once the 99^th was prepared for combat duty, it was transported to the African Theater where they began to fight against the German Luftwaffe. The 99^th received a Distinguished Unit Citation for its performance.

Despite this, the commander of the fighter group that the Tuskegee Airmen were part of told the media that the 99^th was a failure and that its pilots were incompetent. These claims were almost entirely based on racist beliefs. A recommendation for disbandment was narrowly prevented from being sent to President Franklin D. Roosevelt.

Shortly after that, three new squadrons of African American aviators finished their training at Tuskegee and departed for Africa. After several months, all four squadrons were combined into the all African American 332^nd Fighter Group. The 332^nd gained recognition for their escort of Allied bombers in the European theater. The Tuskegee Airmen became one of the most highly decorated groups in the American armed forces and were attributed with the destruction of a large number of Axis planes and ground targets.

Despite their great success, the Tuskegee Airmen still faced discrimination for some time upon their return to the United States after World War II. Their important contribution to the war effort was not fully recognized until many years later. The Tuskegee Airmen serve as yet another example of African Americans overcoming adversity to achieve greatness, and their story is an inspiration to all Americans.

By: Derek Nielsen

Vietnam War

The Vietnam War changed the nation forever. It came right after the positive 50s, and led to the 60s. The 60s were full of negativity and protests, but in the 50s middle class American families had very little to worry about. Before the Vietnam war, attitudes about war were generally positive. This was right after WWII which brought nothing but prosperity. The Vietnam war on the other hand was the opposite. People came into the war with positive attitudes, but that quickly changed. The war seemed to go on forever with no real progress. Money, bodies, and resources were wasted on a war when nobody knew why it was fought. It was technically a conflict because war was never declared. It's very similar to watergate. Before that happened, people trusted that the president knew what he was doing, and it led to later government investigations. 

Most people would have expected the United States to pick up an easy victory, but that wasn't the case. The United States had a more powerful army, but the Vietnamese knew the territory and used that to their advantage. The war was just one big misunderstanding. The Americans thought they were fighting to stop the spread of communism while the Vietnamese thought of the Americans as imperialists, and fought for their freedom. This is why they fought so hard. The war didn't really accomplish anything.

The Civil Rights Movement in 1960

The Civil Rights Movement really started about 1955. The movements aimed towards outlawing racial discrimination against African Americans, especially in the south. 

By the 1960's Civil Rights activist were taking journeys called "freedom rides". These activist would take  interstate buses into segregated southern towns and test the Supreme Court rule of Boynton v. Virginia. 

In the late 1950's and early 1960's integration of African American and white students at Mississippi universities was started. Many were against this movement and would come to the schools and try to keep the African American students out. Soon government enforcement was needed just so these young men and some women could go to school.

In 1963 there was a march called "March on Washington". The march had six major goals they were trying to achieve.

1)"meaningful Civil Right laws

2)A massive federal works program

3)Full and fair employment

4)Decent housing

5)The right to vote

6)Adequate integrated education"

The march was such a big deal that it caught National media coverage. The march was a success, although many people were against it at first after Dr. Kings famous "I have a dream speech" many had a change in heart.

1960's Space Program

1960's Space Program

The Soviets beat the US to space when they launched the Vostok into space and it made one whole orbit around Earth. Alan Shepard became the first American in space and took a fifteen minute flight in his tiny Mercury spacecraft. The US was very excited! Kennedy decided he wanted to send a man to the moon and bring him back safely. He felt this was the perfect way to break ahead of the Soviets.

John Glenn became the first American to orbit Earth and he did so three times before returning home. Gordon Cooper spend a whole day in space. The Soviets were still ahead of the US. They had already had their first woman in space and she said up almost three days.

NASA created the most sophisticated spacecraft yet which had the ability to change its orbit in mid flight. The Gemini spacecraft had the first controlled reentries to Earth as well as staying in space for 14 days and the space walks lasting up to two hours.

The US also worked on robots there could go even farther into space and we got the first pictures of Venus and Mars. Apollo 8 went into lunar orbit and took many pictures and returned safely. This was a huge victory for the US.

Armstrong became the first man to step on the moon and he said his famous line, "Thats one small step for man, and one giant leap for mankind."

Space Program in the 1960's

The 60's was an anxious time for the U.S. involving space. They feared they were falling behind in development of intercontinental ballistic missiles and that the missile gap was increasing between the Soviet Union and the U.S.. Once John F. Kennedy was elected president he had no choice, but to focus on human spaceflight. 

On April 12, 1961, the Soviet Union launched Yuri Gagarin into space. He completed his mission by making a single orbit around the world in 108 minutes. 

In order to chance up the Soviet Union, the U.S. increased there focus on space. On May 5, the U.S. sent Alan Shepard into space for 15 minutes. The U.S. public reacted with wild enthusiasm.

Kennedy decided the one way to win the space race was to land a man safety on the moon and have him return. First John Glenn became the first American to orbit the Earth on February 12, 1962. However shortly after the Soviets overshadowed the U.S. by sending the first women into space, successfully completing a full day mission, and so forth.

Meanwhile the Soviets and the U.S. wanted to expand their reach beyond Earth's orbit. After much trial and error, on July 20, 1969 Apollo 11 became the first spaceship to land on the Moon and Neil Armstrong became the first man to step on the Moon. The Americans had won the space race.

-Alice Walton

Our Boys in 'Nam

Vietnam was colonized by France since 1884, causing the formation of several Vietnamese opposition groups. One such group was the Viet Minh common front formed in 1941, which was controlled by the Communist party in Vietnam. Because France was taken over by the Axis during WWII, the Japanese took over the French colonies. When famine struck northern Vietnam in 1944, the Viet Minh inspired the people to refuse to pay taxes and to raid rice storages. The group recruited many members during this period. In 1945 Japan was defeated and the leader of the Viet Minh Ho Chi Minh declared the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. Vietnam struggled against the French and finally gained independence in 1954, with the help of the PRC, the Communist party in China, and the Soviet Union. Many Vietnamese were allowed to freely move between North and South Vietnam, separated by the 17th parallel. The Viet Minh, led by Ho Chi Minh, governed the North and the Republic of Vietnam, led by Ngo Dinh Diem, ruled the South. The North Vietnamese army is referred to as the People's Army of Vietnam and the communist South Vietnamese army is referred to as the Vietcong.

The Kennedy Administration grew wary of the spread of communism during the Cold War. However, Kennedy believed that South Vietnam carried much of the responsibilities regarding guerrilla warfare because he was against the deployment of American troops. As Kennedy's advisers pressed for military action, the President stuck with merely giving aid. The Southern government, filled with corruption and poor leadership, eventually required US troops.

President Lyndon Johnson took over the Presidency in 1963. He was initially more involved in the "Great Society." However, he was notified of two attacks on American battleships on intelligence missions near the Gulf of Tonkin in 1964. It was later found in 2005 that there were actually no attacks on the battleships. However, these "fake" attacks allowed Johnson to conduct military operations in Vietnam. The US constantly bombed Vietnam for three years, hoping that it would intimidate North Vietnamese as well as bolster the morale of South Vietnamese. On 1965, the marines were dispatched to Vietnam. There was not much progress however, because of the deadly guerrilla tactics. In 1968, North Vietnamese forces attacked during Tet holiday, the Vietnamese counterpart of New Year's. The attack was devastating to the Vietcong as US forces retaliated quickly.

The Vietnam War concluded during Nixon's presidency. The Paris Peace Accords were signed in 1973, ending direct US involvement in the war. The treaty ordered a ceasefire between the two states. In 1975 Northern forces captured Saigon, ending the war. Although the North Vietnamese technically won, the war ended up as a stalemate for both powers. The US had no choice but to retreat from the war, failing to enforce the policy of containment, while Vietnam suffered many casualties. Neither countries paid reparations.

Andrew C and Ben H

The 33rd President of he United States

Harry Truman was president from 1945 to 1953. Truman had to face challenge after challenge to help the post-war economy. One of his major accomplishments was his Fair Deal program. He also began desegregation of the military and created checks to eliminate communist supporters. At the end of World War 2, he changed history by using the first nuclear weapon against Japan. He later founded the United Nations, Marshall Plan and Truman Doctrine to help rebuild Europe and prevent the spread of communism.

His presidency began to deteriorate at the beginning of the cold war and the Korean war. One of his major secret plans during his presidency was the Manhattan Project: the development of the first atomic bomb during Roosevelts presidency. This plan was such a secret that even Truman was not aware of what was happening even when he took his oath.

Truman was the first president and a key figure to be involved in the establishment of the state of Israel. Being the following president to anti-Semitic Roosevelt, his support was not high and he was concerned about the idea. Later on, however, the idea of a Jewish state became more popular and he grew more comfortable with its support.

His second term as president, consisted of many challenges. This was due to the cold war with the Soviet Union and the progress of the atomic bomb. In 1953, he announced the success of the Hydrogen bomb. The US was one step ahead of the Soviet Union. In regards to this competition, Truman felt the need to detect Soviet spies, leading up to the policy of McCarthyism. Truman allowed horrible accusations against anyone suspected of being a communist. In the Korean War, Truman got the US Navy involved with a naval blockade. In addition, he told the UN for the first time in history to use its defense powers. 30000 Americans were killed and this war made the president unpopular such that he was forced to cancel his reelection process. In 1950, there was an assassination attempt. It was a close call for the president but he finally took cover.

- Sneha B and Shany A